Introduction
The Latino population in the United States has been growing at a rate of approximately two percent each year in the last three decades. Latinos are now the largest ethno-racial minority group in the United States. As of July 1, 2018, Latinos were estimated at 18.3% of the U.S. total population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018a) and are projected to reach 27.5% by 2060 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018b).    
A key dimension of minority status is education. The U.S. education system is highly stratified and educational achievement varies by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status.  Although racial and ethnic gaps in educational achievement and attainment have narrowed over the past three decades, educational achievement gaps remain a major challenge for the nation. Latino, African American, and Native American students score significantly lower on achievement tests, especially in mathematics, than White and Asian students.
Several factors at the community, school, family, and student levels influence Latinos’ and other minority students’ academic achievement. These include, to name a few, parents’ socioeconomic status, lack of knowledge about the functioning of the U.S. school system, inadequate resources and weak student-teacher relationships (Schneider, Martinez, and Owens, 2006), and school socioeconomic composition (Coleman et al., 1966).
The objective of this article is to describe the current state of education for Latinos, compared to other racial groups in the United States and Michigan. Data are drawn from several existing sources, including the American Community Survey (ACS), the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), the Michigan Student Test of Educational Progress (M-STEP), and the Current Population Survey (CPS). The following question is addressed: 1) How do Latinos compare with other racial groups when it comes to educational attainment and achievement? The following dimensions are examined: educational attainment of adults (25 years and older), educational performance in reading and mathematics, high school graduation and dropout rates, and enrollment to colleges.

Educational attainment
Figure 1 presents the educational attainment of adults 25 years and older by race and ethnicity in the United States for the year 2017. Latinos are among the least educated group with 15% of adult Latinos (25 years and older) having earned a Bachelor’s or higher degree, compared with 35% of Whites, 21% of African Americans, 14% of American Indians/Alaska Natives, 53% of Asians, and 17% of Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders. About 27% of adult Latinos had a high school diploma (or equivalent).  
Latinos are not a monolithic ethnic group. They are diverse and include Latinos who are U.S. citizens and immigrants. Estimates from the ACS show that Mexican Americans constitute the largest segment of Latinos in the United States. As of 2017, the composition of Latinos in the United States was as follows: 63% Mexican Americans, 10% Puerto Ricans, 4% Cubans, 13% Central Americans, 6% South Americans, and 5% other Latinos, which includes Spaniards (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018a).
Figure 1. Percent Educational Attainment of Adults 25 Years and Older by Race/ethnicity in the United States, 2017

As shown in Figure 2, Mexican Americans, followed by Latinos from Central America, have the lowest rates of Bachelor’s degree attainment, compared to other groups. Latinos from South America, followed by Cubans and other Latinos, have the highest levels of Bachelor’s degree attainment.
Figure 2. Percent Educational Attainment of Latino Adults 25 Years and Older by Hispanic origin in the United States, 2017

In 2017, 17% of Latino adults in Michigan had a Bachelor’s degree or higher, compared to 29% of White adults. Native American adults in Michigan had the lowest levels of Bachelor’s degree attainment, whereas Asian adults had the highest levels of Bachelor’s degree attainment (63%) (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Percent Educational Attainment of Adults 25 Years and Older by Race/ethnicity in Michigan, 2017

Student performance
Reading achievement
In 2017, Latino 4th graders scored 23 points lower than their White counterparts in reading on average (Table 1). In comparison, African American (26 points), American Indian/Alaska Native (30 points), and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander (20 points) 4th graders scored lower than their White classmates in reading. In contrast, Asian 4th graders scored 9 points higher than their White classmates in reading on average (Table 1).
Another way to look at racial/ethnic inequalities in reading achievement is to consider the percentage of students at different achievement levels. Achievement levels are performance standards reflecting what students should know and be able to master at each level: Basic level denotes partial mastery of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient performance at a given grade. Below basic level denotes less than the basic level of performance. Proficient level denotes solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter. Advanced level signifies superior performance (Aud, Fox, and KewalRamani, 2010).
In 2017, 23% of Latino 4th graders scored at proficient or advanced reading, compared to 47% of White 4th graders (Table 1). Considering other racial groups, 20% of African American, 20% of American Indian/Alaska Native, 27% of Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, and 59% of Asian 4th graders scored at proficient or advanced reading levels.
Table 1. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Fourth Grade Reading by Race/ethnicity in the United States, 2017

In 2017, Latino 4th graders in Michigan scored 18 points lower than their White counterparts in reading on average (Table 2). In comparison, African American 4th graders scored 27% lower, whereas Asian 4th graders scored 13 points higher than their White classmates.
Table 2. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Fourth Grade Reading by Race/ethnicity in Michigan, 2017

In 2017, 20% of Latino 4th graders in Michigan scored at proficient or advanced levels in reading, compared to 36% of White 4th graders (Table 2). Comparatively, 12% of African American and 56% of Asian 4th graders scored at proficient or advanced levels in reading.
The reading achievement gap between Latinos and Whites and that between other racial minority groups and Whites in 8th grade is similar to that for 4th graders’ reading scores (see Table 1). In 2017, Latino 8th graders scored 20 points lower than their White counterparts in reading (Table 3). Comparatively, African American 8th graders scored 26 points, American Indian/Alaska Natives 22 points, and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders 20 points lower than their White classmates in reading. In contrast, Asian 8th graders scored 9 points higher than their White classmates in reading. In 2017, 23% of Latino 8th graders scored at proficient or advanced reading, compared to 45% of White 4th graders (Table 3); 18% of African American, 21% of American Indian/Alaska Native, 22% of Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, and 57% of Asian 8th graders scored at proficient or advanced reading.
Table 3. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Eighth Grade Reading by Race/ethnicity in the United States, 2017

In Michigan, Latino 8th graders scored, on average, 11 points lower than their White counterparts in reading (Table 4). Comparatively, African American 8th graders scored 20 points lower than their White classmates. In contrast, Asian 8th graders scored 10 points higher than their White classmates. In terms of proficiency levels, 25% of Latino 8th graders in Michigan scored at proficient or advanced reading, compared to 38% of White 4th graders. Comparatively, 13% of African American and 52% of Asian 8th graders scored at proficient or advanced reading.
Table 4. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Eighth Grade Reading by Race/ethnicity in Michigan, 2017

In 2015, Latino 12th graders scored 19 points lower than their White counterparts in reading (Table 5). Comparatively, African American 12th graders scored 29 points and American Indian/Alaska Natives 18 points lower than their White classmates in reading. In 2015, 25% of Latino 12th graders scored at proficient or advanced reading, compared to 47% of White 12th graders. In comparison, African Americans scored 16% and American Indian/Alaska Natives 21% at proficient or advanced reading.
Table 5. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite score for Twelfth Grade Reading by Race/ethnicity in the United States, 2015a

In 2018, Latino 11th graders scored on the Michigan Student Test of Educational Progress (M-STEP) on average 47 points lower than their White counterparts in English language arts (ELA) (Table 6). Comparatively, African American 11th graders scored on average 78 points, American Indian/Alaska Natives 41 points, and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders 13 points lower than their White classmates in ELA. In contrast, Asian 11th graders scored on average 50 points higher than their White classmates. In terms of proficiency levels in 2018, 44% of Latino 11th graders scored at proficient or advanced in ELA, compared to 65% of White 11th graders. In comparison, 29% of African American 11th graders, 47% of American Indian/Alaska Native, 60% of Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander and, on the top of the list, 75% of Asian 11th graders scored at proficient or advanced in ELA.
Table 6. Percentages of Eleventh Grade Michigan Students at Advanced/Proficient Levels and M-STEP Mean Scale Score of Reading and Writing by Race/Ethnicity, 2018a

Mathematics achievement
In 2017, Latino 4th graders, on average, scored 19 points lower than their White counterparts in mathematics (Table 7). In comparison, African American 4th graders scored 25 points, American Indian/Alaska Natives 21 points, and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders 19 points lower than their White classmates in mathematics. In contrast, Asian 4th graders, on average, scored 12 points higher than their White classmates in mathematics. In 2017, 26% of Latino 4th graders scored at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics, compared to 51% of White 4th graders. Comparatively, 19% of African American, 24% of American Indian/Alaska Native, 29% of Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, and 64% of Asian 4th graders scored at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics.
Table 7. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Fourth Grade Mathematics by Race/ethnicity in the United States, 2017

In 2017, Latino 4th graders in Michigan, on average, scored 19 points lower than their White counterparts in mathematics (Table 8). In comparison, African American 4th graders in Michigan scored 31 points lower than their White classmates in mathematics. In contrast, Asian 4th graders in Michigan, on average, scored 19 points higher than their White classmates in mathematics.
Table 8. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Fourth Grade Mathematics by Race/ethnicity in Michigan, 2017

In 2017, 19% of Latino 4th graders in Michigan scored at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics, compared to 42% of White 4th graders (Table 8). Comparatively, 10% of African American 4th graders and 70% of Asian 4th graders in Michigan scored at proficient or advanced levels.
In 2017, Latino 8th graders scored 24 points lower than their White counterparts in mathematics on average (Table 9). In comparison, African American 8th graders scored 33 points, American Indian/Alaska Natives 26 points, and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders 19 points lower than White classmates. In contrast, Asian 8th graders scored 19 points higher than their White classmates in mathematics on average.
Table 9. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Eighth Grade Mathematics by Race/ethnicity in the United States, 2017

In 2017, 20% of Latino 8th graders scored at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics, compared to 44% of White 8th graders (Table 9). Comparatively, 13% of African American, 18% of American Indian/Alaska Native, 24% of Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, and 64% of Asian 8th graders scored at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics.
In 2017, Latino 8th graders in Michigan, on average, scored 22 points lower than their White counterparts in mathematics (Table 10). In comparison, African American 8th graders in Michigan scored 36 points lower than their White classmates in mathematics. In contrast, Asian 8th graders in Michigan scored 27 points higher than their White classmates.
Table 10. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Eighth Grade Mathematics by Race/ethnicity in Michigan, 2017

In 2017, 15% of Latino 8th graders in Michigan scored at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics, compared to 37% of White 8th graders (Table 10). Considering other racial groups, 9% of African American and 65% of Asian 8th graders in Michigan scored at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics.
In 2015, Latino 12th graders scored 21 points lower than their White counterparts in reading (Table 11). Comparatively, African American 12th graders scored 30 points and American Indian/Alaska Natives 22 points lower than their White classmates. In 2015, 25% of Latino 12th graders scored at proficient or advanced mathematics, compared to 31% of White 12th graders. In comparison, 7% of African American 12th graders scored 7%, American Indian/Alaska Native 10%, and Asian 12th graders 48% at proficient or advanced mathematics.
Table 11. Percentages at each Achievement Level and Average NAEP Composite Score for Twelfth Grade Mathematics by Race/ethnicity in the United States, 2015

In 2018, Latino 11th graders scored, on average 53, points lower than their White counterparts in mathematics (Table 12). Comparatively, African American 11th graders scored, on average, 89 points, American Indian/Alaska Natives 46 points, and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders 15 points lower than their White classmates. In contrast, Asian 11th graders scored, on average, 91 points higher than their White classmates. In terms of proficiency levels, 21% of Latino 11th graders scored at proficient or advanced levels in ELA, compared to 43% of White 11th graders. In comparison, 10% of African American 11th graders, 25% of American Indian/Alaska Native, 37% of Native Hawaiian /Other Pacific Islander, and 69% of Asian 11th graders scored at proficient or advanced in mathematics.
Table 12. Percentages of Eleventh Grade Michigan Students at Advanced/Proficient Levels and Mean Scale Score of Mathematics by Race/Ethnicity, 2018

High School completion and dropout
In 2018, 81% of high school students in Michigan (4-year 2018 graduation cohort) graduated on time with a regular diploma (Table 13). Asian students had the highest graduation rate (91%), followed by Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders (87%), Whites (84%), Latinos (74%), and American Indian/Alaska Natives and African Americans (70%).
Table 13. Graduation Cohort Graduation Rate by Race/ethnicity in Michigan, 2018

The 4-year dropout rate is defined as the percentage of public high school students in Michigan who, after beginning the 9th grade four years previously, dropped out of school without completing the requirements of a high school diploma. In Michigan, 9% of all high school students (4-year 2018 graduation cohort) in the 2017-2018 school year dropped out before completing the requirements to graduate. American Indian/Alaska Native and African American students in Michigan had the highest dropout rate (14%), followed by Latino (13%), Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander (8%), White (7%), and Asian (4%) students (Table 14).
Table 14. Graduation Cohort Dropout Rate by Race/Ethnicity, Michigan, 2018

The status dropout rate is defined as the percentage of 16- to 24-year old civilians living in housing units who are not enrolled in school and have not earned a high school diploma or equivalent. In 2017, the percentage of 16-24 year old civilians who were dropouts was estimated at 6% (Table 15). The status dropout rate was highest among American Indian/Alaska Natives (11.2%), followed by Latinos (9.7%), African Americans (6.6%), Whites (4.7%), and Asians and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islanders (2.7%).
Table 15. Status dropout rates by Race/Ethnicity in the United States, 2017 (Numbers in thousands. Civilian noninstitutionalized population age 16 – 24 years)

Enrollment status
In 2017, 40% of 18-24 year olds were enrolled in 2- to 4-year colleges. Among those 18-24 year olds who were enrolled in colleges, Asians had the highest enrollment rate (62.8%), followed by Whites (41.0%), Latinos (36.2%), and African Americans (35.8%) (Table 16).
Table 16. Enrollment Status in Two- to Four-Year Colleges in the United States by Race/Ethnicity, 2017 (In 1000s. Civilian noninstitutionalized population age 18-24 years)

Conclusion
This article highlights Latino educational attainment and achievement as compared to other racial groups in the United States and Michigan. Latinos remain among the least educated racial/ethnic groups in both the United States and Michigan, along with African Americans and American Indian/Alaska Natives. In sharp contrast, Asians, followed by Whites are the most educated racial/ethnic groups. What is striking is that these racial/ethnic educational inequalities exist at all levels of the schooling system: elementary school (4th grade), middle school (8th grade), high school (11th or 12th grades), and college. This suggests that most of the underlying causes of racial/ethnic achievement gaps lie within the stratified school system itself. Educational system reform to reduce racial/ethnic achievement gaps is undoubtedly warranted. It will require investments in school resources and teachers, interventions at various school levels, and most importantly concerted efforts and policy changes at local, state, and federal governments to transform education systems into effective systems.

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